Learners’
Perception on Security Issues
in M-learning (Nigerian Universities Case Study)
With
the advent of modern technology, mobile
phones and smartphones are used not only for calling and text messages
but also
for banking and social networking. Recent developments in technology
have made
the use of mobile devices feasible in other sectors such as education
and
government. While educators are using mobile devices as teaching aids,
students
are also using them as learning tools. In
some cases the developers of mobile
learning in universities are making m-learning apps without serious
consideration for security aspects whereas the handheld devices pose a
serious
threat to confidentiality, integrity and privacy of users including the
learners. As a case study, this paper investigates the security
concerns that
students may have with the introduction of m-learning in higher
education
institutions in Nigeria and how this impacts on their learning. It
examines the
effects of security threats in m-learning on students and provides
recommendations for alleviating these threats.
Keywords:
mobile learning;
m-learning; m-learning security; mobile device; handheld device;
security
issues.
Introduction
Traditional
distance learning and e-learning have improved the quality of education
by
adding flexibility, comfortability and, at times, shortening the length
of
study (Beauchamp and Kennewell, 2010). While distance learning is
mainly paper
based, e-learning is a digital platform for passing knowledge from
instructors
to their students as well as a medium that eases information
dissemination
among them. e-learning is a method of educational delivery via
electronic media
to boost the learner’s knowledge, and learning skills. With
the
advent of
emerging mobile technologies and maturity in e-learning, the need to
integrate
mobile devices into learning is inevitable. Mobile-learning
(m-learning) is an
emerging innovation that is being integrated into distance and
e-learning
programmes to give a complete package of virtual education (Ozuorcun
and Tabak,
2012).
It is the delivery of
educational
material through mobile devices, such as personal digital assistants
(PDAs),
iPods, mobile phones, smartphones and tablets (Sitthiworachart and Joy,
2008).
The
use of mobile devices in education is increasing due to the
availability and
affordability of mobile phones, smartphones and tablets. According to
the Cisco
report, by 2012, 7 billion mobile devices had been sold worldwide
(Cisco,
2012). The main focus of m-learning is to utilise the substantial
development
in mobile technologies to the utmost advantage of the learners to
improve their
learning process and shorten the learning curve (Keegan, 2005). Another
focal
point of m-learning is to facilitate information sharing, which makes
it
possible for learners to interact with each other and share knowledge
anytime.
In an educational context,
mobile
phones are broadly used by students to access and support learning
(Aderinoye
et al., 2007) and many learners exploit the interactivity and
sociability of
web 2.0 technologies, such as wikis, online forums, blogs, image
sharing and
other social media in the area of arts and humanities.
M-learning
also allows learners to communicate with their lecturers, as well as
access
learning content and resources, while on the move. Thus, students who
use
mobile technologies for learning are not only closer to their lecturers
and
tutors, but also in full control accessing learning content and
instructions
through their mobile devices. Therefore, one of the advantages of
m-learning is
that it gives learners a degree of liberty, freedom and independence in
the
course of learning (El-Hussein and Cronje, 2010). Although, Taleb and
Sohrabi
(2012) listed the educational uses of mobile devices by students to
include; access
to an online dictionary, message texting as well as for scientific
calculations, the authors further attributed to Levy (2007) that
students who use
mobile technology devices have more motivation for learning than those
who do
not.
The
use of mobile technologies by learners, however, has implications for
security
in term of integrity, confidentiality, and privacy of the
users’
data who are involved
in the learning process. In this regard, learner records, e-portfolio
data,
assessment grades and feedback are some examples of sensitive
information that
need protecting when using mobile devices in education (Kambourakis,
2013).Therefore,
the challenge is to safeguard what should be learnt in the lecture
room, what
should be learnt outside the classroom, and the methods in which
connections
between these two settings should be made (Hashemi et al.,
2011). The issues examined in this paper are loss or theft
of mobile device, unauthorised access, attack on m-learning system and
denial
of service. Denial of service (DoS) is a form of attack in which users
are
deprived of the services of a resource they would normally expect to
have. It
is aimed at complete disruption of routing information which
consequently
affects the whole operation of wireless network and normally affects
the
availability of m-learning system. While these security challenges
affect the
use of mobile learning in Nigerian Higher Education Institutions (HEI)
and the
students’ viewpoints on mobile devices for learning, this
article
examines the
learners’ perceptions on security issues that affect them in
mobile learning.
The
first section of this article is a review of related research on
m-learning
security. It summarises an existing study on m-learning security and
evaluates the
recommendations made in the literature. The second part discusses the
research
carried out on security issues that affect the use of m-learning in
Nigeria
from university students’ perspective, and details the
purpose of
the research,
the methodology and research questions. A brief overview of the
analysis of the
results of the research is presented in section three while section
four gives
a detailed discussion of the results gathered and statistical tests.
The last
part of this article highlights and discusses recommendations given to
the
security issues mentioned in the previous sections. The article
concludes with
problems encountered during the research and direction for future work
in
ensuring a robust and highly secure m-learning environment.
In
as much as mobile devices have capabilities to motivate modern and
innovative
ways to learn; the security issues inherent in mobile devices are also
transferable to m-learning. There are perceived risks, such as
unauthorised interfering
with the learning content and instructions. Educational institutions,
educators
and individual learners are also extremely concerned about the
increasing
threats to users’ data security and privacy, since in most
cases,
learners are allowed
to use their handheld devices to access learning content and materials.
There
are notable works on mobile learning and the learners’ views
on
the use of
m-learning, some of which are examined below.
Zamzuri
et al.,(2013)
state that students are
the biggest users of any modern learning system and they are concerned
about
their privacy and security when using the system. Many learners are
worried
that their confidential information such as assessment results might be
revealed to others. The authors propose that students’ needs
and
views be considered
in ensuring that the system is successfully implemented in any
particular institution.
Alwi and Ip-Shing (2009), who studied the perception of learners via
e-learning
(of which m-learning is a subdivision), found that there are security
threats
in the online learning systems, and that reliable security management
in
e-learning is significant in securing the modern learning environment.
These
studies are more peculiar to an e-learning environment and apart from
privacy issues,
they did not state other security threats being faced by learners when
using
mobile devices for learning.
In
a study conducted in Nigeria, Boyinbode and Akinyede (2008) indicate
that
m-learning is the gateway to e-learning for many Nigerian students and
it has
already started to play a vital role in e-learning in Nigeria by
bringing
e-learning to students in rural communities.
Adedoja et al.,
(2012) stated
that m-learning allows students to send and receive learning content
that
contains graphs, images, video and sounds, making it a platform to
create
reality and dynamism needed for effective learning. They remark that
mobile
technologies improve the productivity and efficiency of learners in
Nigeria by
delivering educational materials and support in real time and right
context for
their immediate needs, and conclude that having a good mobile
technology
infrastructure in the absence of other alternatives has made m-learning
a good
choice for Nigerian learners.
Osang
et al.,
(2013), however, argue that many
learners using the wireless internet without any supervision or
monitoring might
lead them to join negative
groups on social
networks, which
might threaten their personal safety and the security of their mobile
devices.
They cite prevalent kidnapping cases in the country, as well as the
recently
publicised death of a Nigerian student who was killed by kidnappers in
a hotel
where they arranged to meet via social media, vividly emphasizing the
potential
grave dangers unassuming people are exposed to in the hands of those
who abuse
the technology.
The results of the study conducted by Alzaza and Yaakub (2011) in Malaysia show that students have satisfactory knowledge and good awareness of mobile technologies that may be used to enhance their learning experience. Similarly, the research conducted by Rafiu et al., (2011) shows that learners in Nigerian universities are well prepared for m-learning as they have various types of mobile devices in their possession and demonstrated high level usage skills for successful implementation. While the studies examined above are relevant because they discuss students’ views on m-learning, they do not highlight any security challenges the students are facing when using their mobile devices for learning purposes. This article aims to assess mobile learning security from the students’ perceptions and examine the risks that might affect m-learning in HEIs in Nigeria as well as the perceived damaging effects to the students in case of a security breach. Taking this approach will not only remove the concerns that students are having regarding the security of m-learning but also enable them to take full advantage of m-learning for their education.
The purpose of this study is to provide answers to the following questions:
(a) How important is the perceived security of m-learning devices to learners and why?
(b)
What
are the
security concerns learners have when using mobile devices for learning?
(c)
What are
the perceived damaging effects of m-learning security threats to the
students?
This
study employed a survey research approach using a sample population of
students
from three Universities in Nigeria. The data collection method involved
delivering a set of questionnaires to 90 randomly selected students.
The
questionnaire comprised of 21 single and multiple choice questions
divided into
4 sections. Section one was on demography and it collected personal
information
about the respondents. Questions in section two were concerned with the
mobile
devices used by the respondents and what type of activities they were
being
used for. Section three gathered data on m-learning awareness, the
learning
activities they were being used for and if m-learning improved their
learning
skills and performance. Section four was based on the security aspects
of
m-learning. It obtained information about the importance students
placed on the
security of their device(s), i.e. their security concerns about
m-learning. In
addition to the perceived threats being analysed, section four was
designed to
assess if the security of their mobile device had previously been
breached, how
it was breached and the effect it had on them. This section concluded
with how
mobile learning security issues can be assessed and minimised. Only the
demographic and mobile security parts were used for analysis in this
article.
The
questionnaires were
distributed at core lectures during the first semester of the 2013/2014
session
after ethical consent was sought and obtained for the survey through
the
authors’ university (BSREC approval REGO-2013-472), and
respondents to the
questionnaire were assured anonymity. The data collected was analysed
and
presented using frequency distributions, pie charts, histograms and
statistical
tests. Figure 1 illustrates a summary of the demographic distribution
of the
study participants; responses came from 42 females (46.67%) and 48
males
(53.33%). The largest numbers of participants were students in the age
group 20
– 25, which accounted for (60%).
Figure
1: The
demographic distribution of the study
participants (N=90)
The
findings of this work
are organised into three sections in order to provide answers to the
research
questions as shown below.
Research
Question 1:
How
important is the perceived security of m-learning devices to
students and why?
This
is a single choice closed question to determine how important students
consider
the security and safety of their mobile phone, smart phone, tablets and
other
handheld devices to be. All the 90 students responded to the question.
As shown
in figure 2, two-thirds (65.56%) responded that the security of their
device is
‘very important’ to them, 31.11% indicated it is
‘important’, and only 3.33%
said it is ‘neither important nor unimportant’ to
them.
There were various
reasons given by the participants as to why the security of their
m-learning
devices is important to them, some of which are highlighted in the
discussion
section of this article. Tables
1 and 2
show the percentage of the participants on demographic distribution.
Based on a
total scale of 100%, 44.45% and 52.22% of female and male students
respectively
said the security of their mobile device is
‘important’ or
‘very important’ to
them. On the same scale for age groups, 3.33% of 19 and under, 57.78%
of 20-25
and 35.56% of 26 and over said the security of their mobile device is
‘important’
or ‘very important’ to them.
Figure
2:
How important is the security of mobile devices to respondents
|
Gender |
Total
(%) |
|
Female |
Male |
||
Very
important |
25.56 |
40 |
65.56 |
Important |
18.89 |
12.22 |
31.11 |
Neither
important nor unimportant |
2.22 |
1.11 |
3.33 |
Table
1:
Demographic information on importance of security based on
gender
|
Age
Group
(%) |
||
19
or under |
20
- 25 |
26
and over |
|
Very
important |
1.11 |
36.67 |
27.78 |
Important |
2.22 |
21.11 |
7.78 |
Neither
important nor unimportant |
1.11 |
2.22 |
0 |
Table
2:
Demographic information on importance of security based on age
groups
Research
Question 2: What
are the security concerns students have
when using mobile devices for learning?
This
research question was designed to find out which security issues
students are
concerned about encountering when using their mobile devices for
learning. Approximately
four out of ten of the participants (42.27%) agreed that theft is a
concern
when using mobile devices for learning while over half of the
respondents (54.43%)
said loss of mobile device is a concern to them. 81.11% indicated that
colleagues
and friends are likely to use their handheld device without their
permission,
which is a concern that may lead to unauthorised access. Nearly
seven out of ten of the participants (67.78%)
thought that virus or malware attacks are inevitable when using a
mobile device
for learning while nearly a third of the participants (32.22%) said
‘denial of
service’. These are shown in figure 3 below. Tables 3 and 4
show
the
demographic information on security concerns students may have on
m-learning
based on gender and age group, respectively.
Figure
3:
Security issues students might encounter in m-learning
|
Gender |
Total
(%) |
|
Female |
Male |
||
Theft
of
m-learning device |
20 |
22.22 |
42.22 |
Loss
of
m-learning device |
25.56 |
28.89 |
54.45 |
Malware/
Virus attack |
30 |
37.78 |
67.78 |
unauthorised
access |
34.44 |
46.67 |
81.11 |
Denial
of
Service |
15.56 |
16.67 |
32.23 |
No
Security threats |
1.11 |
0 |
1.11 |
Table
3:
Demographic information on students’ security concerns based
on
gender
|
Age
Group
(in %) |
||
19
or under |
20
- 25 |
26
and over |
|
Theft
of
m-learning device |
1.11 |
26.67 |
14.44 |
Loss
of
m-learning device |
3.33 |
32.22 |
18.89 |
Malware/
Virus attack |
4.44 |
34.44 |
28.89 |
unauthorised
access |
2.22 |
45.56 |
33.33 |
Denial
of
Service |
4.44 |
23.33 |
4.44 |
No
Security threats |
|
|
1.11 |
Table
4:
Demographic information on students’ security concerns based
on
age group
Research
Question 3: What
are the perceived damaging effects of
m-learning security threats to the students?
Figure
4 shows the most common concerns of students on the perceived effects
of m-learning
security in the universities surveyed. A
large numbers of the participants said they are likely to suffer loss
of
confidential or personal information in the event of security breach.
This view
accounted for 92.22% of the participants. Loss of study hours and loss
of
performance accounted for 72.22% and 75.56% respectively. Psychological
effects
resulting from security breaches of mobile devices accounted for 50%
while two
people indicated that they are not likely to experience any damaging
effects as
a result of security breach. Tables 5 and 6 show the demographic
information on
the perceived damaging effects of security breach based on gender and
age group
respectively.
Figure
4:
Damaging effects of m-learning security threats to students
|
Gender
(in
%) |
Total
(%) |
|
Female |
Male |
||
Loss
of
confidential info |
43.33 |
48.89 |
92.22 |
Loss
of
study hours |
32.22 |
40 |
72.22 |
Loss
of
performance |
33.33 |
42.22 |
75.56 |
Psychological
damage |
21.11 |
28.89 |
50 |
No
effects |
1.11 |
1.11 |
2.22 |
Table
5:
Demographic information on security effects based on gender
|
Age
Group
(in %) |
||
19
or under |
20
- 25 |
26
and over |
|
Loss
of
confidential info |
4.44 |
56.67 |
31.11 |
Loss
of
study hours |
2.22 |
41.11 |
28.89 |
Loss
of
performance |
4.44 |
42.22 |
27.78 |
Psychological
damage |
2.22 |
28.89 |
18.89 |
No
effects |
0 |
1.11 |
1.11 |
Table 6: Demographic information on security effects based on age groups
This
result was further
analysed using the chi-square statistical test for dependency based on
the
demographic information. The chi-square statistic was calculated to be
4.1017,
the P-value - 0.128627, and confidence interval of 0.050. The test
shows that
there is no gender difference on how important the security of
m-learning
devices is. However, for the test performed on age group, the
chi-square
statistic is 10.284; P-Value - 0.035906 and the same confidence
interval of
0.050. The statistical test shows that there is a significant
difference on how
important the security of m-learning device is based on age group. This
statistical
test implies that students tend to be security conscious about their
mobile devices
based on their age.
Figure
3 relates to perceived security issues students may encounter when
using mobile
devices for learning. A very high percentage of students (81.11%)
perceived the
unauthorised use of portable devices by friends or classmates of the
owners as
a security risk. The potential for unauthorised use of portable devices
is suggested
to be high among learners in Nigeria since they usually live in shared
hostels;
mobile devices left on a table can be picked up by roommates and used
for gaming
or educational purposes. This act may lead to unauthorised access to
confidential
information of the owner since many students have personal details such
as full
name, address, date of birth, email address and even their bank account
information on apps on their mobile devices.
Significant
proportions of the perceived risks are loss and theft of mobile
devices. These
are common in many developing countries since mobile devices are still
regarded
as precious possessions and in some cases where the HEI supplies
learners with
mobile devices, there are concerns about making learners attractive to
thieves.
This result is in line with Obodoeze et al.’s
(2013)
study which demonstrated the second most challenging security concerns
affecting mobile users in Nigeria is the frequent or widespread losses
of
mobile device by their owners to thieves or the owners carelessly lose
their
mobile phones while in transit. Virus and malware attack is also
perceived as a
threat when using handheld devices for learning purposes and they are
normally
encountered when downloading educational materials from an unknown
source. This
result is also consistent with the work of Obodoeze et al.,
(2013), which identifies the various forms of threats
including virus/malware attack and hacking as the biggest security
challenges
being faced by mobile device users in Nigeria.
Access
to information,
group discussion as well as learning content and instructions may be
disturbed
through DoS if the network is penetrated. In addition, it is a threat
that
results from irregular power supply to mobile learning servers, which
is common
in developing countries. This study is supported by the findings of
Osang et al.,(2013)
in which 64% of the
respondents identify that the poor power supply situation in the
country is a
barrier tom-learning. Furthermore, DoS may occur during scheduled or
unscheduled downtime due to maintenance of network infrastructure,
which can
lead to loss of connectivity between mobile devices and servers. It can
also be
caused by physical attacks on network infrastructure on universities
campuses,
which are common, for example during student riots in some universities
in
developing countries such as Nigeria.
A
statistical test for
observable gender differences linked to the perceived
students’
security
concerns were carried out using nonparametric Mann-Whitney U Test. The
U-value
was calculated as 15 and the critical value of U - 5. Therefore,
statistically
significant gender difference does not exist at confidence interval of
0.050.
Similarly, a test for observable age group differences linked to the
perceived
security concerns were carried out using Kruskal-Wallis Test for age
group;
there was no statistically significant age group difference at
confidence
interval of 0.050.
Figure
4 analyses the
perceived damaging effects to the students in the event of a security
breach.
92.22% of the learners agreed that loss of confidential information is
the most
hurtful effect. This result is consistent with the work of Zamzuri et al.,
(2013), which states that one of
the reasons why students reject online systems is due to security
reasons
because they are worried about the loss of their private and
confidential information.
The study also reveals that 70% of learners’ feared loss of
study
hours and
performance as consequences of a security breach in m-learning due to
DoS,
which is possible when learners view m-learning systems as a complement
to the classroom
and rely on it as one of their main learning platforms. This implies
that non-availability
for a long period of time will have adverse effects on
learners’
study hours,
revision time and consequently their performance. This finding is in
line with
the work of Kukulska- Hulme et
al.,(2009),which
states that good m-learning improves learners’ study
retention
and performances
in their study. Therefore, learners need a reliable, highly available
and dependable
m-learning system to avoid being frustrated in the event of
disconnection to
the m-learning system, which can affect their study performance
adversely. This
raises the worry that students may be reluctant to fully engage with
m-learning
and therefore fail to realise the full potential of m-learning to their
learning experience because of their concerns about loss of study hours
and
performance in the event of a security breach.
Half
of the learners believed that they are likely to experience
psychological
disturbance if their personal information is leaked through a mobile
device or
m-learning system or if their privacy is infringed.
In
uniformity with other research questions, the result was further
analysed using
chi-square (5 x 5 table) statistical test for dependency based on the
demographic information and age group. The chi-square statistic was
calculated
as 0.3166, the P-Value - 0.988718and confidence interval of 0.050 for
the
gender demography. For age group, chi-square statistic was calculated
as 1.3706,
the P-Value - 0.994653 at confidence interval of 0.050.
Both tests, therefore show
that there are neither
gender nor age produce significant differences in the damaging effects
felt by
the students in the event of an m-learning security breach.
It should be noted that responses of the participants are limited to their experience and knowledge about m-learning and security issues surrounding m-learning environments as well as their mood when completing the questionnaire. The participants were asked to respond to the questions as practically as possible and to answer the questionnaire based on their view on m-learning.
Recommendations
The
first task in alleviating security issues in relation to
students’ perceptions’
of m-learning is to create awareness and information education about
mobile
security. This is imperative as our study revealed that, while most of
the
students considered the security of their mobile devices as very
important or
important, some of them do not. With adequate knowledge, learners will
be more
security conscious about the safety of their handheld devices. Being
security
conscious will make learners take proper care for their devices and
help to
alleviate their concerns of loss or theft of their device.
Similarly,
security consciousness should be encouraged among learners who connect
to
educational resources while on the move using any free available WI-FI.
While
some students may not consider connection to free WI-FI a major
security
threat, in some cases it may pose significant risk and there is need to
educate
them on the dangers. Furthermore, they should be aware of the
credibility of
the organisation providing the connection regarding the security and
safety of
free network facilitates before using it. For example, connecting to an
unsecured and unverified wireless infrastructure increases the chances
of
putting personal data at risk. Therefore, students should take note of
the
potential risks of automatically connecting to unknown free wireless
access
points, which may be intercepted or controlled by attackers and may
lead to
unauthorised access to their mobile device and learning materials
stored in it.
Overcoming
unauthorised access is possible by having robust access control
mechanisms for
authentication and authorisation before permission is given to access
the
device or view learning content and materials. Password lock or
biometric
access will prevent other learners from using the device if left on the
table
by the owner. Meanwhile, mobile devices will not be left on the table
unattended if the owner is security conscious as mentioned earlier.
Devices
like mobile or smart phones should remain in owners’ pockets
when
not in use
while tablets should be kept away. Similarly, encryption of data on
m-learning
devices will further safeguard learning content, student’s
personal
information, assessment records and grades from unauthorised access if
lost or
stolen. While students’ personal details, assessment records
and
grades are
required to be safeguarded for confidentiality and privacy reasons,
learning
contents are needed to be safeguarded for copyright protection
purposes,
unauthorised access and against manipulations which have been
identified as
security issues in e-learning (Graf 2002) as well as m-learning.
DoS
can be overcome by putting in place scheduled maintenance policy for
m-learning
servers and network infrastructure as well as an uninterruptible power
supply.
DoS resulting from network breach can be avoided using prevention
techniques
for counteracting DoS such as protocol traceback techniques on the
m-learning
servers (Tupakula and Varadharajan 2013) and reverse proxies spread
across
multiple hosting locations.
The recommendation for alleviating perceived security issues on virus and malware attack is the use of legacy protection mechanisms. This involves having regular data backup, installing firewalls and having up to date anti-malware and anti-virus software installation on m-learning devices. Furthermore, all interfaces including Bluetooth interface should be highly secured. For example, mobile firewalls normally inspect IP interfaces, but they often overlook the Bluetooth interface (Razaque and Elleithy, 2012).
Conclusion and further research
This
article discusses learners’ perceptions on security aspects
of
mobile learning,
which is expanding the possibilities of open and distance learning
education.
Students are willing to embrace their use of mobile devices for
learning
purposes not only to augment classroom lectures but also to achieve the
globalisation objective (Hashemi et
al.
2011). Their interest and expertise are of great potential for
m-learning if
integrated into their learning curriculum (Dale and Povey 2009).
However, the
security and confidentiality of their private information being exposed
in the
process of m-learning are of great concern to them, which may lead to a
reluctance to use such technology and consequently fail to realise the
full
potential of m-learning. Therefore, provision of robust mechanisms to
support
learners’ authentication, authorisation, content copying and
downloading, and
safeguarding learner examinations, assessment and feedback processes
from
attackers and impostors are what the learners want in an m-learning
environment.
Student
records, e-portfolios and faculty data are some of the confidential
information
that need to be protected while students’ privacy should be
guaranteed at all
times (Luminita and Magdalena 2012). Adequate security measures are
required to
ensure that highly secured connections are maintained between the
learners’ devices
and m-learning servers by deploying proper security policies and
measures so as
to deter and repel attacks. Similarly, learners should ensure that they
connect
their devices only to trusted and tested networks in order to safeguard
data
transferred during the m-learning process. They should avoid
downloading
learning materials from illegitimate sites which are common sources for
malware
attacks.
In
conclusion, mobile learning is going to
increase in patronage as technology advances, the security issues in
mobile
devices which are also on the increase are transferable to m-learning
systems.
Learners are most highly likely to be affected since they are the main
users of
m-learning. Therefore, adequate security education and awareness inform
of
tutorials and tips should be put in place for the learners in order to
minimise
the security palaver and give them confidence in using such technology.
This
article considers m-learning security
from learners’ perspectives, our previous publication
discusses
m-learning
security from lecturers’ perspectives (Shonola and Joy 2014).
However, there
are still many grey areas in m-learning security where limited or no
research
has been done, such as common attack routes in m-learning security
breaches, collective
responsibilities of m-learning stakeholders in combating security
breaches and other
perceived threats to m-learning in developing countries apart from
security.
Therefore, future research work should focus on these areas.
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