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‘Exchanges’ – Conversations with… Oliver Sacks
Julie Walsh, University
of Warwick
Renowned neurologist and
author Dr Oliver Sacks is a visiting professor at the
University of Warwick as part of the Institute of Advanced
Study. Dr Sacks was born in London. He earned his medical
degree at the University of Oxford (Queen’s College) and the
Middlesex Hospital (now UCL), followed by residencies and
fellowships at Mt. Zion Hospital in San Francisco and at
University of California Los Angeles (UCLA). As well as
authoring best-selling books such as Awakenings
and The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, he is
professor of neurology at NYU School of Medicine in New
York. Warwick is part of a consortium led by New York
University which is building an applied science research
institute, the Center for Urban Science and Progress (CUSP). Dr Sacks recently completed
a five-year residency at Columbia University in New York,
where he was professor of neurology and psychiatry. He also
held the title of Columbia University Artist, in recognition
of his contributions to the arts as well as to medicine. He
is a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and the
Association of British Neurologists, the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and
Letters, and has been a fellow of the New York Institute for
the Humanities at NYU for more than 25 years. In 2008, he
was appointed CBE. (University of Warwick, 2012)
...it still
strikes me myself as strange that the case histories I write
should read like short stories
and that, as one might say, they lack the serious stamp of
science. I must console myself with the reflection that the
nature of the subject is evidently responsible for this,
rather than any preference of my own. (Sigmund Freud, 1895)
I have no “literary” aspirations whatever,
and if I write “Clinical Tales” it is because I am forced to; because
they do not seem to me a gratuitous or arbitrary compound of
two forms, but an elemental form which is indispensable for
medical understanding, practice, and communication. (Oliver
Sacks, 1986)
I have always been
intrigued by the logic of writing down notes (clinical
or otherwise) in order then to write them up. What is it
exactly that happens between these stages of writing? Can we
really say that the first is a simple act of recording or
documenting, while the second is a more elaborate process of
reconstruction? The
‘write up’ perhaps brings to mind the more ambiguous notion of
the ‘stitch up’ with its connotations of fabrication and
wilful misrepresentation. Similarly, the figurative use of the
verb ‘to doctor’ – as in to doctor the evidence – might remind us of the
multiple powers that reside in the personage of the physician
who may be writing up and/or stitching up your case. It would
seem that the capacity to disguise or dissemble is somehow
integral to the project of clinical writing. But so too must
the idea of the ‘stitch up’ imply the physician’s care, his
work of suturing a wound, or attending to the frayed nerves of
a patient. Finding its highpoint in the clinical narrative or
case-history, the ameliorative power of storytelling can also
be read as a desire to assuage the patient’s suffering; to
give form to the fractured or dislocated elements of
experience. And what of the pleasures of spinning a yarn?
From his first book, Migraine (1970), to
his most recent, Hallucinations
(2012), Oliver Sacks has finessed the art of the ‘clinical
tale’. With it he has conveyed the many ways in which the
fabric of one’s personal identity can become unstitched by a
range of neuropathological phenomena. As a medical
practitioner and a writer, Sacks holds that the greater
endeavour of medicine is to help an individual construct a
life; this means that medicine’s modes of communication need
to be equal to the task.
For Sacks, to rehabilitate the case history as a form
of writing inevitably means that the patient’s story becomes
the tale of an embattled protagonist striving to preserve a
coherent identity in adverse circumstances.[1]
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In his recent lecture here
at Warwick (available on video via
the University website), Sacks reminded his audience
of the historical drift since the nineteenth century that has
occurred in science writing – and in medicine in particular –
towards greater classification at the expense of detailed
descriptions of the patient’s idiosyncratic experience. Sacks’ attention to
the idiosyncratic details, and the care he takes in presenting
them, doubtless accounts for his appeal as a writer and his
success as a physician. But
are there any tensions between the dramatic impulse of the
case history, thus conceived, and the physician’s fidelity to
the facticity of the case?
If the case history is to become germane to medical
methodology once more, how are we to think about its
production of ‘truth’ (whether for the patient, the doctor
and/or the reader)? And
most curiously, for me at least, in what ways does the
storyteller reveal himself
in the act of telling another’s
story?
I first engaged with Sacks’
work on my undergraduate Sociology degree here at Warwick. We were learning to
think about the relation between identity, memory and trauma,
both from the personal or autobiographical perspective, and in
relation to questions of collective identity in the context of
twentieth-century cultural history. In The Man Who Mistook His
Wife for a Hat (or his Hat book, as Sacks calls it) we found stories
to demonstrate the precariousness of personal identity.
Critically, for the student of sociology, Sacks’ work offered
an unusual lens – what we might call the lens of ‘neurological
self-hood’ – for viewing how one’s capacity to sustain a
stable sense of self can be disrupted. More recently I’ve
returned to Sacks’ work with a view to thinking about the
affinities between his research questions and those of
psychoanalysis. When I asked Dr Sacks to reflect on the place
of psychoanalysis, and of Sigmund Freud, in his life and work
it was clear that there were several lines of thought to
pursue. Freud the writer of case histories provides a clear
precedent for Sacks. Then there is the therapeutic
experience of psychoanalysis to consider, especially its
clinical practice of reading the self beyond its most obvious
presentations. Indeed,
Sacks discussed with me how his long standing personal
analysis may have strengthened his habit and skill as a
listener. But
perhaps it is the early Freud – the neurologist in gradual
pursuit of a scientific psychology – that Sacks is most able
to admire.[2]
In the course of our interview Sacks told me about his great
love for marine biology, and how at one point in his career –
‘between the chemical days and the medical days’ – he had
wanted to spend his life’s work on the nervous systems and
behaviours of invertebrates. If it is difficult to reconcile
such a wish with the deeply human commitment to
medicine and science for which Sacks is now renowned, we
should remember that the impulse to keep these dimensions
distinct – to carve up the world according to different kinds in order to
limit one’s engagement with it – runs counter to Sacks’
general approach. Sacks told me that one of the things Freud
had a very clear feeling about was the importance of continuity between
all life forms: ‘in
his paper on crayfish ganglia [Freud] brings out that the
nerve cells are essentially similar to the nerve cells of
mammals or human beings; it’s not the nerve cells […] which
are different, but their number and organisation’. The
provocative question that Sacks raises from Freud’s commitment
to continuity concerns the boundaries of mental life: where
does mental life begin and end? For Sacks’ Freud, the mental
is not confined to human beings.
When I met with Dr Sacks
earlier this month he warned me that he had a tendency to
‘gabble’ and that my questions were ‘liable to release ten
minutes of nonsense’ from him.
Nothing could have been further from the truth, but we
did hit upon a felicitous affinity between his areas of
research expertise and the particular mode of attention that
allows for productive meanderings off topic (or seemingly off topic). I had asked about
the rituals that attach themselves to his writing habit.
Sacks, by and large, has always been a hand writer. His desk
was sectioned with different papers, pads, and numerous pens
ordered for various purposes, and his shelves were stacked
with journals and notebooks going back years; there were three
journals (A5 hardback notebooks) that contained notes from a
single month in 1987. He
mentioned his preference for a particular thick-paged notebook
in which one can write on both sides and, critically, that has
no lines. ‘Do you know what delirium means, literally?’, asked
Sacks ‘it means not staying between the lines’. A quick
consultation with the nearby dictionary confirmed it: delirium
from dēlīrāre:
prefix de as in
from, and lira as in furrow; ‘so
it’s to turn, to turn away from the furrow’. Likewise, he told
me, Hallucinations
– the title of his most recent book – connotes a wandering in
mind, or a not sticking to the point.
Many of the wanderings our
conversation took have not been captured in the extract below:
for example, the importance of recognising the existence of
mental life in non-human species; the distinction between
‘mind’ and ‘brain’; the possibility of a basic incompatibility
between ‘organic’ aetiologies and what we might call
‘psychosocial’ ones. Such are the omissions of this particular
write up. What follows focusses on the line of discussion to
which we kept returning: namely, what it means to write a case
history. By the end of our time together Sacks had impressed
on me the challenge of being ‘essentially faithful’ to the
clinical material in question whilst not disavowing the
inevitable ‘gap between experience and art’.
***
OS: I’m in a writing spell now,
but I wasn’t a month ago and I had an arid time in the summer.
JW: Can you sit quite
comfortably with that?
OS: No! I’m a miserable person
then, and I make other people miserable.
JW: Unless you’re writing?
OS: When I’m writing I become
much happier, the neuroses fall away, I don’t bother people, I
see the best of people, I elicit the best of people. And, in
this way, writing is absolutely essential for my health and
wellbeing.
JW: One of the questions you
ask in your work, and it’s a problem I’m also very taken by,
is the question of what constitutes a tenable life. I noticed in The New York Times recently
[The Joy of Old Age],
you evoked the Freudian wisdom whereby what makes a life
tenable is the capacity to love and work.[3] It’s interesting to
hear you reflect on the fact that writing, for you, makes your
life tenable, so to speak. I think this really does key into
your emphasis on the value of narrative, doesn’t it?
OS: On the value of work.
JW: Yes, and work.
OS: Yes, in particular your work; one’s work, which is
also one’s identity, or part of one’s identity. Although I don’t
know that I’ve ever quite identified myself as a writer. I was asked in an
interview some years ago, what are you first, a physician or a
writer? I said a
physician but they inverted the order and said a writer, which
sort of annoyed me. Though I think the real answer is that
they tend to go together and perhaps (as if I were a novelist)
people around me – my friends as well as my patients – are in
danger, so to speak, because they may be turned into material!
Although with my patients
I’m slow to write about them, I feel I have to know them
fairly well, and then I will discuss the matter with them and
see how they feel. I’m
not satisfied with a formal consent, I have to feel they would
be comfortable and I will usually send them what I write and
ask them to correct or comment. By that time they may say,
I’ve changed my mind; leave me out.
JW: Ah, okay, and will you do
that, if they have changed their mind?
OS: If it’s a radical change
of mind I might. Or
there may be minor changes. This was the case with one
relatively early piece of mine on a man with Tourette’s called
Witty Ticcy Ray
which was later collected in the Hat book.[4] [When I wrote the
piece] I’d been seeing him at that point for ten years, since
‘71. And I asked
Ray (this was not his real name) if he’d care to read it and
he said no, that’s okay, I trust you. And I said, well I think
you should read it, and he said, well, okay, why don’t you
come to dinner on Friday.
As he was reading it, I noticed various tics and I was
getting nervous and he said rather explosively, you take some liberties! I pulled out my red
pen and said, what should I erase, what should I change? In
the end he shook his head and said, leave it, it’s essentially true, he
said, but don’t publish here in New York – why don’t you
publish it in England. So it was published in The London Review of
Books. At
that point I thought that if I published in London it would,
to some extent, protect my patients in New York – although I’d
learned with Awakenings
that this was not always the case. One of my Awakenings patients,
a very bright woman, who got wind of the fact that the book
had been published in England, somehow got a copy. And now, if I write
a piece, it’s ‘out there’.
Which reminds me, I’m
bewildered and often horrified about the nature of blogs,
which seem to erase some of the distinction between private
and public, and I think they’re rather dangerous.
JW: But isn’t that also a
danger that your work inevitably encounters?
OS: Yes.
JW: So, Ray’s response, ‘you
take some liberties’ is relevant here. First of all there’s
the very simple truth that we can never know whether the
patient is going to be able to say, ‘yes, that does me
justice’ or ‘yes, that accords with my own understanding of
the situation’ or ‘that is essentially true’. And this is
precisely one of the dangers of clinical writing; the
inevitable misrepresentations and moments that expose a
disconnect between two different accounts of an experience. It
can be quite anxiety inducing!
But then again, and I think your work demonstrates this
so well, clinical writing is also enjoyable. In my own work, I
worry about that enjoyment. Because, well, it’s a difficult
type of enjoyment – or pleasure – to take, isn’t it?
OS: It is. And it’s a very
central thing for me. My
Migraine book has
only little vignettes and there are really no recognisable
characters. But then in 1970 I submitted some letters, medical
letters, to the Lancet
about some of my patients on L-dopa. A few weeks later the
sister of one of my patients came up to me holding the New York Daily News in
her hand and she said, is this your medical discretion? Unknown to me, the Lancet had released
the letter to a wire service, and it had been picked up by a
newspaper here. She
wasn’t upset or offended, she said probably no-one but
immediate family would have recognised her sister. But this
worried me somewhat. I
usually make some disguise, alter identifying details, but
obviously in that letter I had not disguised enough.
JW: And perhaps even the
notion of ‘disguise’ is problematic?
OS: Yes.
JW: Because that’s actually
about literary creation, isn’t it? So, in ethically
disguising the identity of the patient one is also creatively
dissembling.
OS: Yes.
JW: And fictionalising!
OS: Right. Yes, well with Ray
it was fairly light: I changed his name and I changed where he
lived. But to
what extent is dissembling, as you put it, compatible with
truth? Big
question!
JW: It is the big question!
OS: Something drifted in and
out of my mind. I want to say this: It has been brought up in
various forms, sometimes rather traumatic forms; a critic
called Tom Shakespeare once called me “the man who mistakes
his patients for a literary career,” which hurt, and which
stays in my mind even thirty years later. I feel that first as
a physician I have to respect the patient, and to be tactful
and delicate. There are some things where curiosity would make
me want to push further and I have to say, no, at least not
now. I hope my writings, such as they are, are in the mode of
delicacy and respect.
I was very pleased when Mrs
P, the woman mistaken for a hat, after her husband’s death,
went to see the opera by Michael Nyman.[5]
I watched her closely at the performance, wondering what
[she’d make of the piece], but she came up to us, the script
writer and the musician and myself, and she said, you have
done honour to my husband. And that was very nice; we all gave
a big gasp of relief.
JW: Yes! So I wonder if your
solemn feeling of responsibility impacts on whether or not you
wish to collaborate with others in your writing? I mean I‘ve
noticed that you include your readers and the correspondence
you get with your readers as part of your practice.
OS: I do now.
JW: So in a way I suppose we
can think of your use of letters as a collaborative writing
practice. But, exempting the artworks, have you ever wanted to
actually sit down and write collaboratively with another?
OS: I think the simple answer
is no. Peter
Brook phoned me some years ago and said he wanted to do a
theatre evening called ‘The Man Who…’ drawing on many things. I introduced him to
one or two patients, and I then basically said, it’s up to
you. And I felt
the same with Pinter when he wrote A Kind of Alaska.[6]
In the movie of Awakenings,
I was there only as a sort of technical advisor, for medical
details.[7] I disliked one scene
in the movie when there’s a sort of fight in the lobby of the
hospital and I walked off the set angrily. When I saw it made
no difference, I came back to the set quietly and kept my
mouth shut and thought, it’s theirs, not mine.
JW: I’m really curious to
hear how you understand the relationship between your clinical
writing and the writing of your own memoir; your own case
history. These two modes of writing have to be in dialogue
somehow. And I think my feeling is that all writing is
autobiographical.
OS: Yes, Tolstoy said that
everything he wrote was part of one giant confession. And then of course
Joyce talks about the artist being ubiquitous but invisible. I fear I’ve let
myself become more and more visible!
JW: And why would that be a
fear?
OS: Well, in Awakenings more than
Migraine I had
become a figure in patients’ lives. I got the drug, I watched
them, I felt guilty and appalled when they started to get bad
effects of one sort or another, and when one of my patients
then called L-dopa ‘Hell-dopa’. I lived through the whole
experience with them. But in a way my Leg book [A Leg to Stand On]
became a sort of case history of myself, and in The Mind’s Eye I’ve
given an explicit account of being a patient. But also I think in
other books I’ve sort of thrown myself in, as I would throw
anyone in, because of a particular phenomenon or symptom. So
say in my chapter on amusia,
in Musicophilia, I
mention a couple of times when I had amusia with a
migraine, as part of a migraine aura. And in The Mind’s Eye, when
I’m writing about alexia,
I again mention a personal example.
JW: So, you become a character
in the lives of your patients, and you can also use yourself
as a resource when you’ve been a patient in a particular
medical context. But
there’s another context in which your patient-hood is at
stake, and you allow us just a slight glimpse of this in your
Hallucinations book.
OS: Oh yes, my Chapter Six.
JW: Yes, your chapter on
‘Altered States’. So, you tell us that in the mid-sixties you
entered an analysis following your friend’s astute observation
that your experimentation with mind-altering drugs may in fact
be masking some inner conflicts. I’d be very interested to
hear about what it was like to be that type of patient, and
also to think with you about how the experience of analysis
may have mapped on to the development of your ethos and your
style as a writer.
OS: Well, in December, New
Year’s Eve of ‘65, when I was fizzing and sort of manic with
amphetamine, and had lost a great deal of weight, I had a sort
of lucid moment when I saw my gaunt – my then gaunt – face in
the mirror and I said to myself, you will not see another New
Year’s Day unless there’s intervention. I had been seeing an
analyst a little bit in Los Angeles, it didn’t seem to get
anywhere, partly I think because I was always stoned when I
saw him, or often stoned. This allowed me to produce some
associations with vertiginous rapidity but they were somehow,
you know, all on the surface of my mind; nothing really got
in, or went deep. In Los Angeles when Doctor Bird said to me,
why are you here? I said, ask Doctor Bonnard, she referred me!
So, you know, my heart wasn’t in it. Whereas in ‘66, I
sought help for myself, knowing I was in danger. The analyst I
saw then is still my analyst; I saw him yesterday and we are
now in our forty-seventh, forty-eighth year.
JW: My goodness me!
OS: I see him twice
a week and if I’m away somewhere I will phone if I can. I’ve
even phoned from a cell phone from the middle of a desert, or
something like that. And
I dedicated my Hat
book to him.
I think that the habit and
skill of listening carefully, not interrupting too much, and
trying to divine what may be going on behind the words is a
sort of – I think this has to be the case with all doctors and
maybe with all people – has been strengthened by seeing him.
I think one no longer
speaks of analysts as ‘Freudian’ or whatever, but although my
own analyst has the Collected
Works [of Freud], doubtless, he is very sensitive to
biological factors as well. I think I mentioned this actually
in Hallucinations
in the chapter on delirium: I’d started having some very
peculiar dreams when I was in Brazil, but I’d had diarrhoea
and a fever and this and that, and I thought they would settle
down but they didn’t. I
had these extraordinary Jane Austen-like dreams which were
very atypical and I would wake and have a cup of tea and go
back and I would be in the same dream except it would have
moved on a chapter, or two months later. I had the feeling it
was a narrative saying itself, whether I was awake or asleep.
After about a couple of weeks my analyst said, you’ve produced
more dreams in the last two weeks than in the previous twenty
years, are you on something?
And I said no, and then I said well, actually I am, I
was started on Lariam to prevent malaria. Lariam used to be
given to all the armed forces here, and may have played a part
in their breakdowns and violence when some of them came back. But it is now a drug
handled very carefully and it really shouldn’t have been given
to me, it’s only of use for the sort of malaria one has in
South East Asia. But
Lariam is now well known for producing bizarre dreams,
hallucinations, and psychoses.
Anyhow this was an example of [my analyst] saying,
something else may be going on here.
I should say that he
himself [has] written several books and he displays far more
reserve and reticence than I do when he talks of his patients. With some difficulty
I detected a possible reference to myself, maybe conflated
with others, in one of his books. I was actually
rather sorry it wasn’t more of a reference.
***
References
Breuer, J and Freud, S. (1955 [1895]), Studies on Hysteria
in The Standard Edition
of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,
Volume II (1893-1895). (Trans. & ed.) James Strachey.
London: the Hogarth Press.
Sacks, O. (1970), Migraine. London:
Faber and Faber Limited.
--- (1973), Awakenings. London:
Duckworth.
--- (1984), A Leg to Stand On.
New York: Touchstone Books.
--- (1985), The Man Who Mistook his
Wife for a Hat. London: Picador.
--- (1986), ‘Clinical Tales’ in
Literature and Medicine
5: 16-23.
--- (2000 [1998]), ‘The
Other Road: Freud the Neurologist’ in Freud Conflict and
Culture: Essays on His Life, Work, and Legacy. (ed.)
Michael Roth. New York: Vintage Books: 221-234.
--- (2007), Musicophilia. London:
Picador.
--- (2010), The Mind’s Eye. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf
--- (2012), Hallucinations. London:
Picador.
--- (2013), ‘The Joy of Old
Age. (No Kidding.)’ in The
New York Times (July 6), Accessed online 10/7/13, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/07/opinion/sunday/the-joy-of-old-age-no-kidding.html?_r=0
University of Warwick (2012),
Press Release 173, 10th October 2012, Accessed
online 30/9/13 http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/dr_oliver_sacks/
[1]
The phrase ‘striving to preserve its identity in adverse
circumstances’ is one that Sacks borrows from Ivy McKenzie
whose work on Encephalitis he greatly admires (see for
example Sacks 1986, or his Warwick DLS lecture)
[2]
See
Sacks’ ‘The Other Road: Freud the Neurologist’ (1986)
[3]
Whilst arguably in keeping with the Freudian Weltanschauung (or
worldview), this phrase -the capacity to love
and work- is
not in fact found in Freud’s writing (see
http://www.freud.org.uk/about/faq/).
[4]
‘Witty Ticcy Ray’ was first published in the London Review of Books
(1981) and then collected in The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat (1985).
[5]
The Man Who Mistook
His Wife for a Hat inspired a Michael Nyman opera in
1986.
[6]
Harold Pinter acknowledged the influence of Awakenings on his
1982 play A Kind of
Alaska.
[7]
In 1990 Penny Marshall directed a film adaptation of Awakenings.